Peradaban Lembah Indus Peradaban Lembah Indus (IVC) adalah peradaban Zaman Perunggu (3300-1300 SM periode dewasa 2600-1900 SM) yang terbentang dari apa yang sekarang terjadi di Afghanistan timur laut ke Pakistan dan India barat laut. Seiring dengan Mesir Kuno dan Mesopotamia, ini adalah satu dari tiga peradaban awal Dunia Lama, dan tiga yang paling luas berkembang di lembah sungai Indus, salah satu sungai utama di Asia, dan Sungai Ghaggar-Hakra, Yang pernah melewati India barat laut dan Pakistan timur. Pada puncaknya, Peradaban Indus mungkin memiliki populasi lebih dari lima juta. Penduduk lembah sungai Indus kuno mengembangkan teknik baru dalam kerajinan tangan (produk akik, ukiran segel) dan metalurgi (tembaga, tembaga, timbal, dan timah). Kota-kota Indus dicatat untuk perencanaan kota mereka, rumah bata yang dipanggang, sistem drainase yang rumit, sistem pasokan air, dan kelompok bangunan non-hunian yang besar Peradaban Lembah Indus juga dikenal sebagai Peradaban Harappan, setelah Harappa, yang pertama dari situsnya Untuk digali di tahun 1920-an, di provinsi Punjab British India dulu, dan sekarang adalah Pakistan. Penemuan Harappa, dan segera setelah itu, Mohenjo-Daro, adalah puncak dari pekerjaan yang dimulai pada tahun 1861 dengan berdirinya Survei Arkeologi India di Raj Britania. Ekskavasi situs Harappan telah berlangsung sejak tahun 1920, dengan terobosan penting yang terjadi sebagai Baru-baru ini sebagai 1999. Ada budaya awal dan kemudian, sering disebut Harappan Awal dan Harappan Akhir, di wilayah yang sama dengan Peradaban Harappan. Peradaban Harappan kadang-kadang disebut budaya Harappan Dewasa untuk membedakannya dari budaya ini. Sampai tahun 1999, lebih dari 1.056 kota dan permukiman telah ditemukan, yang telah digali, terutama di wilayah umum Sungai Indus dan Ghaggar-Hakra dan anak-anak sungainya. Di antara permukiman tersebut adalah pusat kota utama Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (Situs Warisan Dunia UNESCO), Dholavira, Ganeriwala di Cholistan dan Rakhigarhi. Bahasa Harappan tidak dibuktikan secara langsung dan afiliasinya tidak pasti karena naskah Indus masih belum diketahui. Hubungan dengan keluarga bahasa Dravida atau Elamo-Dravida disukai oleh sebagian ilmuwan. Kronologi Fase matang peradaban Harappan berlangsung dari c. 2600 sampai 1900 SM. Dengan masuknya budaya pendahulu dan penerus - Harappan Awal dan Harappan Akhir, masing-masing - Peradaban Lembah Indus secara keseluruhan dapat berlangsung sejak abad ke-33 sampai abad ke-14 SM. Dua istilah digunakan untuk periodisasi IVC: Fase dan Eras. Harappan Awal Harappan, Harahap Murni, dan Akhir Harappan juga disebut era Regionalisasi, Integrasi, dan Pelokalan, masing-masing, dengan era Regionalisasi yang kembali ke periode Neolitikum Mehrgarh II. Penemuan di Mehrgarh mengubah keseluruhan konsep peradaban Indus, menurut Ahmad Hasan Dani, profesor emeritus di Universitas Quaid-e-Azam, Islamabad. Di sana kita memiliki keseluruhan urutan, sejak awal kehidupan desa yang tenang. Peradaban Lembah Indus mencakup sebagian besar wilayah Pakistan dan bagian barat laut India, Afghanistan dan Iran, membentang dari Balochistan di barat sampai Uttar Pradesh di timur, Afghanistan timur laut di utara dan Maharashtra di selatan. Geografi Lembah Indus menempatkan peradaban yang muncul di sana dalam situasi yang sangat mirip dengan yang ada di Mesir dan Peru, dengan lahan pertanian kaya dikelilingi oleh dataran tinggi, padang pasir, dan samudra. Baru-baru ini, situs Indus telah ditemukan di Provinsi Perbatasan Pakistan barat laut juga. Koloni IVC lainnya dapat ditemukan di Afghanistan sementara koloni terisolasi yang lebih kecil dapat ditemukan sejauh Turkmenistan dan di Gujarat. Permukiman pesisir meluas dari Sutkagan Dor di Western Baluchistan ke Lothal di Gujarat. Sebuah lokasi Lembah Indus telah ditemukan di Sungai Oxus di Shortughai di Afghanistan utara, di lembah Sungai Gomal di Pakistan barat laut, di Manda, Jammu di Sungai Beas dekat Jammu, India, dan di Alamgirpur di Sungai Hindon, hanya 28 km Dari Delhi Lokasi Lembah Indus paling banyak ditemukan di sungai, tapi juga di pantai kuno, misalnya, Balakot, dan di pulau-pulau, misalnya, Dholavira. Ada bukti adanya hamparan sungai kering yang tumpang tindih dengan saluran Hakra di Pakistan dan Sungai Ghaggar musiman di India. Banyak lokasi Lembah Indus (atau Harappan) telah ditemukan di sepanjang tempat tidur Ghaggar-Hakra. Diantaranya adalah: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, dan Ganwariwala. Menurut J. G. Shaffer dan D. A. Lichtenstein, Peradaban Harappan adalah perpaduan antara tradisi Bagor, Hakra, dan Koti Dij atau kelompok etnis di lembah Ghaggar-Hakra di perbatasan India dan Pakistan. Menurut beberapa arkeolog, lebih dari 500 situs Harappan telah ditemukan di sepanjang hamparan sungai kering di Sungai Ghaggar-Hakra dan anak-anak sungainya, berbeda dengan hanya sekitar 100 di sepanjang Indus dan anak-anak sungainya, menurut pendapat mereka, sebutan Indus Peradaban Ghaggar-Hakra atau peradaban Indus-Saraswati dibenarkan. Namun, argumen yang diilhami secara politis ini diperdebatkan oleh para arkeolog lain yang menyatakan bahwa kawasan gurun Ghaggar-Hakra tidak tersentuh oleh permukiman dan pertanian sejak akhir periode Indus dan karenanya menunjukkan lebih banyak tempat daripada yang ditemukan di alluvium lembah Indus kedua , Bahwa jumlah situs Harappan di sepanjang tempat tidur sungai Ghaggar-Hakra telah dibesar-besarkan dan bahwa Ghaggar-Hakra, bila ada, adalah anak sungai Indus, jadi tata nama baru itu berlebihan. Peradaban Harappan tetap yang benar, menurut penggunaan arkeologi umum untuk menamai peradaban setelah ditemukannya yang pertama. Munculnya Peradaban Awal Harappan Ravi Phase, dinamai di dekat Sungai Ravi di dekatnya, berlangsung dari sekitar tahun 3300 SM sampai 2800 SM. Hal ini terkait dengan Fase Hakra, yang diidentifikasi di Lembah Sungai Ghaggar-Hakra di barat, dan mendahului Tahap Kot Diji (2800-2600 SM, Harappan 2), dinamai menurut sebuah situs di Sindh utara, Pakistan, dekat Mohenjo Daro. Contoh paling awal dari naskah Indus berasal dari sekitar 3000 SM. Fase matang budaya desa sebelumnya diwakili oleh Rehman Dheri dan Amri di Pakistan. Kot Diji (Harappan 2) mewakili fase menjelang Harahap Mature, dengan benteng yang mewakili otoritas terpusat dan kualitas kehidupan yang semakin urban. Kota lain dari panggung ini ditemukan di Kalibangan di India di Sungai Hakra. Jaringan perdagangan menghubungkan budaya ini dengan budaya daerah yang terkait dan sumber bahan baku yang jauh, termasuk lapis lazuli dan bahan lainnya untuk pembuatan manik. Penduduk desa pada saat ini telah menjinakkan berbagai tanaman, termasuk kacang polong, biji wijen, kurma, dan kapas, serta hewan, termasuk kerbau. Komunitas Harappan awal beralih ke pusat kota besar pada tahun 2600 SM, dari mana fase Harappan yang matang dimulai. Pada 2600 SM, komunitas Harappan Awal telah berubah menjadi pusat kota besar. Pusat kota seperti Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro di Pakistan modern, dan Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, dan Lothal di zaman modern India. Secara total, lebih dari 1.052 kota dan permukiman telah ditemukan, terutama di wilayah umum Sungai Indus dan anak-anak sungainya. Budaya urban yang canggih dan berteknologi maju terbukti dalam peradaban Lembah Indus. Kualitas perencanaan kota kota menunjukkan pengetahuan tentang perencanaan kota dan pemerintah kota yang efisien yang mengutamakan kebersihan. Jalan-jalan kota besar seperti Mohenjo-daro atau Harappa ditata dalam pola grid yang sempurna, sebanding dengan New York saat ini. Rumah-rumah terlindungi dari kebisingan, bau, dan pencuri. Seperti yang terlihat di Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, dan Rakhigarhi yang baru ditemukan, rencana kota ini termasuk sistem sanitasi perkotaan pertama di dunia. Di dalam kota, rumah atau kelompok rumah mendapatkan air dari sumur. Dari sebuah ruangan yang tampaknya telah disisihkan untuk mandi, air limbah diarahkan untuk menutupi saluran pembuangan, yang berjajar di jalan-jalan utama. Rumah-rumah dibuka hanya untuk halaman dalam dan jalur yang lebih kecil. Sistem pembuangan kotoran dan drainase kuno Indus yang dikembangkan dan digunakan di kota-kota di seluruh Kekaisaran Indus jauh lebih maju daripada yang ditemukan di situs perkotaan kontemporer di Timur Tengah dan bahkan lebih efisien daripada di beberapa wilayah Pakistan modern dan India saat ini. Arsitektur maju Harappans ditunjukkan oleh galangan kapal, lumbung, gudang, platform batu bata, dan dinding pelindung yang mengesankan. Benteng besar kota-kota Indus yang melindungi orang-orang Harappan dari banjir dan penyerang lebih besar dari kebanyakan ziggurats Mesopotamia. Tujuan dari Citadel tetap diperdebatkan. Berbeda sekali dengan sezaman peradaban ini, Mesopotamia dan Mesir kuno, tidak ada struktur monumental besar yang dibangun. Tidak ada bukti pasti dari istana atau kuil, sesungguhnya, tentang raja, tentara, atau imam. Beberapa struktur dianggap sebagai lumbung. Ditemukan di satu kota adalah bak mandi besar yang sangat bagus, yang mungkin merupakan pemandian umum. Meskipun Benteng berdinding, namun jauh dari jelas bahwa bangunan ini bersifat defensif. Mereka mungkin telah dibangun untuk mengalihkan air banjir. Kebanyakan penghuni kota tampaknya adalah pedagang atau pengrajin, yang tinggal dengan orang lain yang melakukan pekerjaan yang sama di lingkungan yang terdefinisi dengan baik. Bahan dari daerah yang jauh digunakan di kota-kota untuk membangun segel, manik-manik, dan benda lainnya. Di antara artefak yang dibuat adalah manik-manik indah batu mengkilap yang disebut faence. Anjing laut memiliki gambar hewan, dewa, dll dan prasasti. Beberapa meterai digunakan untuk menanamkan tanah liat pada barang-barang perdagangan, namun mungkin ada kegunaan lain. Meskipun beberapa rumah lebih besar daripada yang lain, kota peradaban Indus luar biasa karena egalitarianisme mereka yang sesungguhnya. Misalnya, semua rumah memiliki akses terhadap fasilitas air dan drainase. Seseorang mendapat kesan masyarakat kelas menengah yang luas. Reruntuhan Harrappa pertama kali dijelaskan pada tahun 1842 oleh Charles Masson dalam Narrative of Various Journeys di Balochistan, Afghanistan, dan Punjab, di mana penduduk setempat berbicara tentang sebuah kota kuno yang memperluas tiga belas kosses (sekitar 25 mil), namun tidak ada kepentingan arkeologi yang melekat pada Ini selama hampir satu abad Pada tahun 1856, Jenderal Alexander Cunningham, yang kemudian menjadi jenderal survei arkeologi India utara, mengunjungi Harappa di mana para insinyur Inggris John dan William Brunton meletakkan jalur Perusahaan Kereta Api Indian Timur yang menghubungkan kota-kota Karachi dan Lahore. John menulis: Saya banyak berlatih dalam pikiran saya bagaimana kita bisa mendapatkan pemberat untuk jalur kereta api. Mereka diberitahu tentang sebuah kota kuno yang hancur di dekat garis, yang disebut Brahminabad. Mengunjungi kota, dia menemukannya penuh dengan batu bata yang terbakar dengan baik, dan, yakin bahwa ada sebuah tambang besar untuk pemberat yang saya inginkan, kota Brahminabad dikurangi menjadi pemberat. Beberapa bulan kemudian, ke utara, Johns saudara William Bruntons bagian dari garis berlari di dekat kota lain yang hancur, batu bata yang telah digunakan oleh penduduk desa di desa terdekat Harappa di tempat yang sama. Batu bata ini sekarang menyediakan pemberat sepanjang 93 mil (150 km) jalur kereta api yang berangkat dari Karachi ke Lahore. Pada tahun 187275 Alexander Cunningham menerbitkan segel Harappan pertama (dengan identifikasi yang keliru seperti huruf Brahmi). Itu adalah setengah abad kemudian, pada tahun 1912, bahwa segel Harappan lebih banyak ditemukan oleh J. Fleet, mendorong sebuah kampanye penggalian di bawah Sir John Hubert Marshall pada tahun 1921-22 dan menghasilkan penemuan peradaban di Harappa oleh Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni dan Madho Sarup Vats, dan di Mohenjo-daro oleh Rakhal Das Banerjee, EJH MacKay, dan Sir John Marshall. Pada tahun 1931, sebagian besar Mohenjo-Daro telah digali, namun penggalian berlanjut, seperti yang dipimpin oleh Sir Mortimer Wheeler, direktur Survei Arkeologi India pada tahun 1944. Di antara para arkeolog lainnya yang bekerja di lokasi IVC sebelum pembagian anak benua di 1947 adalah Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, dan Sir Marc Aurel Stein. Setelah Pemisahan India, sebagian besar penemuan arkeologi diwariskan oleh Pakistan di mana sebagian besar berbasis IVC, dan penggalian mulai saat ini termasuk yang dipimpin oleh Sir Mortimer Wheeler pada tahun 1949, penasihat arkeologi untuk Pemerintah Pakistan. Pos-pos dari peradaban Lembah Indus digali sejauh Sutkagan Dor di Baluchistan, sejauh utara di Shortugai di Amu Darya (nama-nama kuno sungai itu Oxus) di Afghanistan saat ini, sejauh timur di Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, India Dan sampai ke selatan seperti di Malwan, Surat Dist. India. Pada tanggal 11 Juli, banjir besar melanda Haryana di India dan merusak situs arkeologi Jognakhera, tempat peleburan tembaga purba ditemukan sejak hampir 5.000 tahun. Situs peradaban Lembah Indus terkena air hampir 10 kaki karena kanal link Sutlej Yamuna meluap. Mohenjo Daro Mohenjo Daro - Mound of the Dead - adalah situs arkeologi di provinsi Sindh, Pakistan. Dibangun sekitar tahun 2600 SM, ini adalah salah satu permukiman peradaban Lembah Indus kuno yang paling kuno, dan salah satu permukiman perkotaan paling awal di dunia, sejaman dengan peradaban Mesir kuno, Mesopotamia, dan Kreta. Mohenjo-daro ditinggalkan pada abad ke-19 SM, dan tidak ditemukan kembali sampai tahun 1922. Penggalian yang signifikan sejak saat itu dilakukan di lokasi kota, yang ditetapkan sebagai Situs Warisan Dunia UNESCO pada tahun 1980. Namun, situs tersebut saat ini terancam oleh Erosi dan restorasi yang tidak tepat. Kota Mohusto Daro yang berusia 4.500 tahun hancur karena Smithsonian - 18 Oktober 2013, Mohenjo Daro, pada saat itu, adalah kota terbesar di dunia. Kira-kira 4.500 tahun yang lalu, sebanyak 35.000 orang tinggal dan bekerja di kota besar tersebut, yang menempati 250 hektar di sepanjang sungai Pakis Indus. Mohenjo Daro duduk di bawah tanah selama ribuan tahun, peninggalan kuno peradaban Lembah Indus kuno. Tapi penggalian membuka kota ke elemen, dan sekarang, kata Telegraph, reruntuhannya mungkin hanya tersisa 20 tahun lagi. Catatan arkeologi pemerintah tidak memberikan jawaban segera untuk pusat kekuasaan atau penggambaran orang-orang yang berkuasa di masyarakat Harappan. Tapi, ada indikasi keputusan yang kompleks diambil dan diimplementasikan. Misalnya, keseragaman artefak Harappan yang luar biasa seperti terlihat pada gerabah, segel, timbangan dan batu bata. Inilah teori utama: Ada satu negara, yang memiliki kesamaan dalam artefak, bukti untuk permukiman yang direncanakan, rasio ukuran bata standar, dan pembentukan permukiman di dekat sumber bahan baku. Tidak ada penguasa tunggal kecuali beberapa: Mohenjo-daro memiliki penguasa yang terpisah, Harappa yang lain, dan sebagainya. Masyarakat Harappan tidak memiliki penguasa, dan semua orang menikmati status yang sama. Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi Orang-orang Peradaban Indus mencapai akurasi yang tinggi dalam mengukur panjang, massa, dan waktu. Mereka termasuk orang pertama yang mengembangkan sistem bobot seragam dan ukuran. Perbandingan objek yang tersedia menunjukkan variasi skala besar di wilayah Indus. Divisi terkecil mereka, yang ditandai dengan skala gading yang ditemukan di Lothal, sekitar 1.704 mm, divisi terkecil yang pernah tercatat pada skala Zaman Perunggu. Insinyur Harappan mengikuti pembagian pengukuran desimal untuk semua tujuan praktis, termasuk pengukuran massa seperti yang diungkapkan oleh bobot heksanya. Bobot chert ini berada dalam perbandingan 5: 2: 1 dengan bobot 0,05, 0,1, 0,2, 0,5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, dan 500 unit, dengan masing-masing unit dengan berat sekitar 28 Gram, mirip dengan English Imperial ounce atau Greek uncia, dan benda-benda yang lebih kecil ditimbang dalam rasio yang sama dengan unit 0.871. Namun, seperti pada budaya lain, bobot sebenarnya tidak seragam di seluruh area. Bobot dan ukuran yang digunakan di Kautilyas Arthashastra (abad ke-4 SM) sama dengan yang digunakan di Lothal. Harappan mengembangkan beberapa teknik baru dalam metalurgi dan menghasilkan tembaga, perunggu, timbal, dan timah. Keterampilan teknik Harappans luar biasa, terutama di bidang pembuatan dermaga. Pada tahun 2001, para arkeolog yang mempelajari sisa-sisa dua pria dari Mehrgarh, Pakistan, membuat penemuan bahwa orang-orang Peradaban Lembah Indus, sejak periode Harappan awal, memiliki pengetahuan tentang kedokteran gigi proto. Kemudian, pada bulan April 2006, diumumkan di jurnal ilmiah Nature bahwa bukti tertua (dan pertama awal Neolitik) untuk pengeboran gigi manusia in vivo (yaitu orang yang hidup) ditemukan di Mehrgarh. Sebelas mahkota molar yang dibor dari sembilan orang dewasa ditemukan di pemakaman Neolitik di Mehrgarh yang berasal dari 7.500-9.000 tahun yang lalu. Menurut penulis, penemuan mereka menunjukkan tradisi proto-kedokteran gigi pada budaya pertanian awal di wilayah tersebut. Sebuah batu ujian yang memiliki garis emas ditemukan di Banawali, yang mungkin digunakan untuk menguji kemurnian emas (teknik semacam itu masih digunakan di beberapa bagian India). Perdagangan dan Transportasi Perekonomian peradaban Indus tampaknya sangat bergantung pada perdagangan, yang difasilitasi oleh kemajuan teknologi transportasi. IVC mungkin merupakan peradaban pertama yang menggunakan transportasi beroda. Kemajuan ini mungkin termasuk gerobak sapi jantan yang identik dengan yang terlihat di seluruh Asia Selatan saat ini, juga kapal. Sebagian besar kapal ini mungkin kerajinan kecil dan rata, mungkin didorong oleh layar, mirip dengan yang bisa dilihat di Sungai Indus hari ini, namun ada bukti sekunder kerajinan seago. Arkeolog telah menemukan sebuah kanal besar yang dikeruk dan yang mereka anggap sebagai fasilitas docking di kota pesisir Lothal di India bagian barat (negara bagian Gujarat). Jaringan saluran yang luas, yang digunakan untuk irigasi, bagaimanapun juga telah ditemukan oleh H.-P. Francfort. Selama 43003200 SM periode chalcolithic (zaman tembaga), kawasan Peradaban Lembah Indus menunjukkan kemiripan keramik dengan Turkmenistan selatan dan Iran utara yang menunjukkan mobilitas dan perdagangan yang cukup besar. Selama periode Harappan Awal (sekitar 32002600 SM), kesamaan dalam tembikar, anjing laut, patung-patung, ornamen, dan sebagainya mendokumentasikan perdagangan kafilah secara intensif dengan Asia Tengah dan dataran tinggi Iran. Dilihat dari penyebaran artefak peradaban Indus, jaringan perdagangan, secara ekonomi, mengintegrasikan area yang luas, termasuk wilayah Afghanistan, daerah pesisir Persia, India utara dan barat, dan Mesopotamia. Ada beberapa bukti bahwa kontak dagang meluas ke Kreta dan mungkin ke Mesir. Ada jaringan perdagangan maritim yang luas yang beroperasi antara peradaban Harappan dan Mesopotamia pada awal fase Harappan tengah, dengan banyak perdagangan ditangani oleh pedagang perantara dari Dilmun (Bahrain modern dan Failaka yang terletak di Teluk Persia). Perdagangan laut jarak jauh semacam itu menjadi layak dengan pengembangan inovatif kapal papan yang dibangun, dilengkapi dengan satu tiang tengah yang mendukung berlayar dari anyaman atau kain. Beberapa permukiman pesisir seperti Sotkagen-dor (mengangkangi Sungai Dasht, sebelah utara Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (mengarungi Sungai Shadi, sebelah utara Pasni), dan Balakot (dekat Sonmiani) di Pakistan bersama Lothal di India memberi kesaksian bahwa peran mereka sebagai pos terdepan Harappan . Pelabuhan dangkal yang terletak di muara sungai yang membuka ke laut memungkinkan perdagangan maritim cepat dengan kota-kota Mesopotamia. Pertanian Sifat sistem peradaban penduduk Indus pada dasarnya masih merupakan masalah dugaan karena terbatasnya jumlah informasi yang bertahan selama berabad-abad. Beberapa spekulasi mungkin dilakukan. Penelitian sebelumnya (sebelum tahun 1980) sering berasumsi bahwa produksi pangan diimpor ke Lembah Indus oleh satu kelompok linguistik (Aryans) dan dari satu wilayah saja. Namun studi terbaru menunjukkan bahwa produksi pangan sebagian besar berasal dari Lembah Indus. Orang-orang Mehrgarh menggunakan gandum dan jelai yang diawetkan dan tanaman sereal yang dibudidayakan utamanya adalah jelai enam baris telanjang, tanaman yang berasal dari dua baris jelai. Arkeolog Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) menulis bahwa situs Mehrgarh menunjukkan bahwa produksi pangan adalah fenomena asli Asia Selatan dan bahwa data tersebut mendukung interpretasi urbanisasi prasejarah dan organisasi sosial yang kompleks di Asia Selatan berdasarkan pada masyarakat adat, namun tidak terisolasi. , Perkembangan budaya. Peradaban peradaban Indus pasti sangat produktif, ia mampu menghasilkan surplus yang cukup untuk mendukung puluhan ribu penduduk perkotaan yang tidak terutama terlibat dalam pertanian. Ini bergantung pada pencapaian teknologi yang cukup besar dari budaya pra-Harappan, termasuk bajak. Meski begitu, sangat sedikit yang diketahui tentang petani yang mendukung kota atau metode pertanian mereka. Beberapa dari mereka pasti menggunakan tanah aluvial yang subur yang ditinggalkan oleh sungai setelah musim banjir, namun metode pertanian sederhana ini tidak dianggap cukup produktif untuk mendukung kota. Tidak ada bukti irigasi, tapi bukti semacam itu bisa dilenyapkan akibat banjir yang berulang dan bencana. Peradaban Indus tampaknya bertentangan dengan hipotesis despotisme hidrolik tentang asal-usul peradaban kota dan negara. Menurut hipotesis ini, kota tidak dapat muncul tanpa sistem irigasi yang mampu menghasilkan surplus pertanian yang besar. Untuk membangun sistem ini, sebuah negara terpusat dan terpusat muncul yang mampu menekan status sosial ribuan orang dan memanfaatkan tenaga kerja mereka sebagai budak. Sangat sulit untuk membedakan hipotesis ini dengan apa yang diketahui tentang peradaban Indus. Tidak ada bukti tentang raja, budak, atau mobilisasi kerja paksa. Seringkali diasumsikan bahwa produksi pertanian intensif membutuhkan bendungan dan kanal. Asumsi ini mudah dibantah. Di seluruh Asia, petani padi menghasilkan surplus pertanian yang signifikan dari sawah berteras, lereng bukit, yang bukan bukan dari perbudakan melainkan tenaga kerja akumulasi banyak generasi manusia. Alih-alih membangun kanal, masyarakat peradaban Indus mungkin telah membangun skema pengalihan air, yang - seperti teras pertanian - dapat diuraikan berdasarkan generasi investasi tenaga kerja skala kecil. Selain itu, diketahui bahwa peradaban Indus mempraktekkan pemanenan curah hujan, sebuah teknologi kuat yang dibuahi oleh peradaban India klasik namun hampir terlupakan di abad ke-20. Harus diingat bahwa masyarakat peradaban Indus, seperti semua bangsa di Asia Selatan, membangun kehidupan mereka di sekitar musim hujan, pola cuaca di mana curah hujan tahunan terjadi dalam periode empat bulan. Di sebuah kota peradaban Indus yang baru ditemukan di India barat, para arkeolog menemukan serangkaian waduk besar, yang dipahat dari batu padat dan dirancang untuk mengumpulkan curah hujan, yang bisa memenuhi kebutuhan kota selama musim kemarau. Beberapa penelitian pasca-1980 menunjukkan bahwa produksi pangan sebagian besar berasal dari Lembah Indus. Diketahui bahwa orang-orang Mehrgarh menggunakan gandum dan jelai yang dijinakkan, 53 dan tanaman sereal yang dibudidayakan utamanya adalah jelai enam baris telanjang, tanaman yang berasal dari dua baris jelai (lihat Shaffer dan Liechtenstein 1995, 1999). Arkeolog Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) menulis bahwa situs Mehrgarh menunjukkan bahwa produksi pangan adalah fenomena asli Asia Selatan dan bahwa data tersebut mendukung interpretasi urbanisasi prasejarah dan organisasi sosial yang kompleks di Asia Selatan berdasarkan pada masyarakat adat, namun tidak terisolasi. , Perkembangan budaya. Yang lain, seperti Dorian Fuller, bagaimanapun, menunjukkan bahwa dibutuhkan sekitar 2000 tahun sebelum gandum Timur Tengah disesuaikan dengan kondisi Asia Selatan. Indus Script Telah lama diklaim bahwa Lembah Indus adalah rumah peradaban yang melek huruf, namun ini baru saja ditantang pada dasar linguistik dan arkeologi. Lebih dari 400 simbol Indus telah ditemukan di segel atau pot keramik dan lebih dari selusin bahan lainnya, termasuk papan nama yang tampaknya pernah digantung di gerbang benteng dalam kota Indus Dholavira. Prasasti Indus yang khas tidak lebih dari empat atau lima karakter, yang sebagian besar (selain papan nama Dholavira) sangat kecil yang terpanjang pada satu permukaan, yang berukuran kurang dari 1 inci (2,54 cm) persegi, adalah 17 tanda panjang Terpanjang pada objek apapun (ditemukan pada tiga wajah berbeda dari benda yang diproduksi secara massal) hanya memuat 26 simbol. Baru-baru ini ditunjukkan bahwa singkatnya prasasti tidak ada bandingannya dalam masyarakat terpelajar pramodern manapun, termasuk yang banyak menulis tentang daun, kulit kayu, kayu, kain, lilin, kulit binatang, dan bahan-bahan yang mudah rusak lainnya. Berdasarkan sebagian dari bukti ini, sebuah makalah baru-baru ini yang kontroversial oleh Farmer, Sproat, dan Witzel (2004), berpendapat bahwa sistem Indus tidak menyandikan bahasa, namun dikaitkan dengan beragam sistem tanda non-linguistik yang digunakan secara ekstensif di Timur Dekat . Ini juga telah diklaim pada kesempatan bahwa simbol-simbol itu secara eksklusif digunakan untuk transaksi ekonomi, namun klaim ini meninggalkan tampilan simbol Indus yang tidak dapat dijelaskan pada banyak objek ritual, banyak di antaranya diproduksi massal dalam cetakan. Tidak ada kesamaan dengan prasasti yang diproduksi massal ini dikenal di peradaban kuno awal lainnya. Foto-foto banyaknya ribuan prasasti yang masih ada diterbitkan di Corpus of Indus Seal and Inscriptions (1987, 1991), disunting oleh A. Parpola dan rekan-rekannya. Publikasi dari volume ketiga terakhir, yang dilaporkan akan menerbitkan ulang foto yang diambil pada tahun 20an dan 30an dari ratusan prasasti yang hilang atau dicuri, dan banyak ditemukan dalam beberapa dekade terakhir, telah diumumkan selama beberapa tahun, namun belum menemukan jalannya. Ke cetak. Untuk saat ini, para periset harus melengkapi bahan-bahan di Corpus dengan mempelajari foto-foto mungil dalam laporan penggalian Marshall (1931), Mackay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), atau reproduksi dalam sumber yang tersebar lebih baru. Istilah Skrip Indus mengacu pada senar simbol pendek yang terkait dengan peradaban Harappan di India kuno (sebagian besar situs Indus didistribusikan di India Barat Laut dan Pakistan Utara) yang digunakan antara tahun 26001900 SM, yang berevolusi dari bentuk awal naskah Indus Dibuktikan dari sekitar tahun 3300 SM. Mereka paling sering dikaitkan dengan tablet batu datar berbentuk persegi yang disebut anjing laut, namun juga ditemukan di setidaknya selusin bahan lainnya. Publikasi pertama dari segel Harappan tanggal 1875, dalam bentuk gambar oleh Alexander Cunningham. Sejak saat itu, lebih dari 4000 objek bantalan simbol telah ditemukan, beberapa di antaranya sejauh Mesopotamia. Setelah tahun 1900 SM, penggunaan simbol berakhir, bersamaan dengan tahap akhir peradaban Harappan. Beberapa ilmuwan awal, dimulai dengan Cunningham pada tahun 1877, mengira naskah itu adalah tipikal skrip Brahmi yang digunakan oleh Ashoka. Hari ini klaim Cunningham ditolak oleh hampir semua peneliti, namun sebagian kecil ilmuwan India terus memperdebatkan naskah Indus sebagai pendahulu keluarga Brahmic. Ada lebih dari 400 tanda yang berbeda, namun banyak yang dianggap sedikit modifikasi atau kombinasi mungkin dari 200 tanda dasar. Rumah itu tingginya satu atau dua lantai, terbuat dari batu bata yang dipanggang, dengan atap datar, dan hampir identik. Masing-masing dibangun di sekitar halaman, dengan jendela menghadap ke halaman. Dinding luar tidak memiliki jendela. Setiap rumah memiliki sumur minum pribadinya dan kamar mandi pribadinya sendiri. Pipa tanah liat mengarah dari kamar mandi ke selokan yang berada di bawah jalanan. Selokan ini dikeringkan ke hampir sungai dan sungai. Kota-kota Harappan tidak berkembang perlahan, yang menunjukkan bahwa siapa pun yang membangun kota-kota ini belajar melakukannya di tempat lain. Saat banjir Indus, kota-kota dibangun kembali di atas satu sama lain. Arkeolog telah menemukan beberapa kota yang berbeda, yang dibangun di atas yang lain, masing-masing dibangun sedikit kurang terampil. Yang paling terampil ada di bawah. Akan terlihat bahwa pembangun tumbuh kurang mampu atau kurang tertarik pada kesempurnaan dari waktu ke waktu. Namun, setiap kota adalah sebuah keajaiban, dan masing-masing sangat maju untuk masanya. Kota mereka terbentang di grid di mana-mana (jalan lurus, rumah dibangun dengan baik) Orang-orang ini adalah pembangun yang luar biasa. Para ilmuwan telah menemukan apa yang mereka anggap sebagai waduk raksasa untuk air tawar. Mereka juga menemukan bahwa bahkan rumah terkecil di tepi setiap kota dikaitkan dengan sistem drainase kota tersebut. (Mungkinkah mereka tidak hanya membuang air limbah, tapi juga memiliki sistem untuk memompa air tawar ke rumah mereka, mirip dengan pipa ledeng modern. Pria dan wanita mengenakan jubah warna-warni. Wanita memakai perhiasan emas dan batu mulia, dan bahkan Memakai lipstik Di antara harta yang ditemukan adalah patung wanita yang mengenakan gelang. (Gelang dengan desain serupa dipakai hari ini di India.) Pakaian untuk sebagian besar, serupa untuk pria dan wanita. Kostum dasar masyarakat kuno adalah Panjang kain yang dililitkan di bagian bawah tubuh, dan garmen longgar untuk bagian atas tubuh, yang biasanya merupakan kain panjang lainnya. Potongan kepala juga dipakai, terutama oleh para pria. Wanita dalam masyarakat Veda juga mengenakan berbagai pakaian. Yang pertama adalah gamis jenis rok (dhoti), dengan blus (choli) dan syal. Yang kedua adalah sari, yang merupakan panjang kain yang melilit di sekitar tubuh dengan ujung yang longgar (pallu) dilemparkan ke bahu. Choli akan dipakai dengan ini. Garmen terakhir Biasanya dipakai oleh wanita kesukuan. Adivasi adalah panjang kain yang diikat di pinggang tanpa pakaian bagian atas yang dikenakan. Pria juga punya pilihan di busana mereka meski tidak beragam seperti wanita. Pria biasanya mengenakan Dhoti, yang merupakan panjang kain yang melilit pinggang. Ini bisa dibiarkan seperti rok atau dibawa melalui kaki dan dijadikan garmen jenis celana. Orang-orang di selatan jarang mengenakan kemeja, tapi orang-orang di utara mengenakan pakaian dalam yang pas. Potongan kepala pria juga panjang kain, dililitkan di sekitar kepala, disebut Turban. Wanita terkadang memakai sorban juga. Karena luasnya India banyak perbedaan dalam pakaian muncul, terutama karena perbedaan iklim. Orang India selatan mengenakan jauh lebih sedikit daripada di utara yang lebih dingin. Wanita di selatan jarang mengenakan pakaian atas. Wanita utara mengenakan garmen atas yang pas dipakai di bawah pas longgar. Pakaian terbuat dari sumber daya yang ada di masing-masing daerah. Kapas dan wol adalah yang paling melimpah, karena sutra tidak diperkenalkan dari China sampai sekitar abad ke-1 SM. Orang juga menikmati bordir dan hiasan mewah. Emas menjadi pilihan, meski ada juga banyak permata perak dan permata berharga. Entertainment A beautiful small bronze statue of a dancer was found, which tells us that they enjoyed dance and had great skill working with metals. In the ancient city of Mohenjo-daro, scientists have found the remains of a large central pool, with steps leading down at both ends. This could have been a public swimming pool, or perhaps have been used for religious ceremonies. Around this large central pool were smaller rooms, that might have dressing rooms, and smaller pools that might have been private baths. Some of the toys found were small carts, whistles shaped like birds, and toy monkeys which could slide down a string. Musical instruments include the Sarangi, Sitar, Tabla, Tambora, and Tanpura. Since Vedic times, Indians had been required to correctly recite, the Vedas. The correctness in recitation was very important as the Vedas were, in those days, transmitted through memory (Smriti) and were learned through hearing (Shruti). This kind of an emphasis on recitation the correct pronunciation lead to studies in phonetics and sound manipulation. This was the birthplace of Indian Musical Raga (metre) and Swaras (rhymes). That Music in ancient India was given considerable recognition is illustrated by the fact that Saraswati, the Indian goddess of learning is shown to be holding a musical instrument (Veena) in her hand. Traditionally, vocal music in India has tended to be devotional music (Bhakti-geet), and temples have been places where musicians used to practice music to please the deity and the devotees. Indian vocal music is broadly divided into two schools - the Hindustani or north Indian school and the Carnatic or South Indian school. As far as instrumental music goes there is a general identity of instruments that have been used. The main Indian musical instruments are the Sarod, the Veena, the Sarangi, the Tambora, the Harmonium, the Ghata, the Tabla, the Tanpura, the Satar, etc. As compared to art and architecture Indian music has had less impact on the outside world. This was so as most of Indian musical instruments require specialized material and craftsmanship for their manufacture. And in the absence of transmission of these skills and the absence of trade in musical instruments, Along with the necessity of long and arduous practice which was required to master these instruments, made the transmission of music a difficult task. However, as far as, devotional vocal music goes, Indian musical traditions did travel to the countries of South east Asia. The instrumental and vocal music of Korea has many elements of Indian music, which it received along with the Buddhist invocative and devotional songs and slokas (religious couplets). Along with Buddhism, some Indian musical instruments like the flute (bansi), temples bell (Ghanta), etc. went to the countries of south-east Asia. Even Europe owes certain instruments to India. Two popular European musical instruments namely the flute and violin are believed to be of Indian origin. Though we do not know about the process of transmission of these instruments, however in India the flute (bansi) and the violin (a variant of the Veena) are definitely indigenously Indian. A pointer to the fact that these instruments have been in usage in India since a very long time is that the bansi is associated with Sri Krishna and the Veena with the goddess Saraswati. This apart, in modern times the western musical instruments like the Tambourin and the Tambour are adaptations of the Indian Tambora and Tanpura. The names Tambourin and Tambour are also derived from the word Tambora. The Saralngi, another Indian musical instrument has also found its place in western music. The acceptance of these musical instruments in the west is also evident from the fact that the words Tambora, Sarangi and Tabla are mentioned in the Oxford Dictionary. Art and Culture Ancient Indias fine art and performing arts attest to this fact. This find expression in music, musical instruments, dancing, paintings and several other art forms. Music had a divine character in India and in recognition of that the Indian Goddess of learning, Saraswati is always shown holding a musical instrument, namely, the veena. Likewise, Krishna is associated with banshi, that is, the flute - a musical instrument, which traveled throughout the world from India. Indian devotional songs and reciting influenced religious recitations in several eastern countries, where the style was adopted by Buddhists monks. The India developed several types of musical instruments and forms of dancing, with delicate body movements and grace. Paintings have remained the oldest art form as found in several cave paintings across the globe. In India also, in places like Bhimbetka, a UNESCO declared world heritage site, pre-historic cave paintings have been discovered. In relatively recent times, paintings and carvings on rock had significantly developed, and many such rock carvings have been found dating to the period of the emperor Ashoka. Indian influences may be seen in paintings at Bamiyan, Afghanistan, and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Sometimes, such paintings depict not only Buddha but Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya. Ancient India had marvelous craftsmen, skilled in pottery, weaving, and metal working. Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, steatite have been found at the excavation sites. The pottery that has been found is of very high quality, with unusually beautiful designs. Several small figures of animals, such as monkeys, have been found. These small figures could be objects of art or toys. There are also small statues of what they think are female gods. They found bowls made of bronze and silver, and many beads and ornaments. The metals used to make these things are not found in the Indus Valley. So, either the people who lived in this ancient civilization had to import all of these items from some other place, or more probably, had to import the metals they used to make these beautiful things from somewhere else. A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. Seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and one sitting cross-legged perhaps the earliest indication, at least illustration, of the practice of yoga. A horned figure in a meditation pose has been interpreted as one of the earliest depictions of the god Shiva. The very first works of visual art created in the Indian sub-continent were primitive cave or rock paintings. Many are assumed to exist, but the largest number of discoveries are in Central India, on sandstone rock shelters within a hundred mile radius around Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. these paintings are dated at around 5500 B. C. i. e. they are 1500 years old. Some of these paintings have been overlaid with later paintings and graffiti. The paintings generally depict animals, in scenes such as hunting. Human figures are also shown with bows and arrows, and swords and shields. The colors used An intricately carved pillar at Ellora in Maharashtra dating back to the 7th century. are made up of natural minerals and are in various shades of red and orange. These paintings are the forerunners of the frescos of a later age which are seen at Ajanta, Ellora and elsewhere in India. But unfortunately no well preserved art remains, to document the period between the coming of the Aryans i. e. 1500 B. C. to about the time of Buddha i. e. 550 B. C. We are told by the literary sources that the art of painting was practiced. In the Buddhist texts, elaborate palaces of kings and houses of the wealthy are described as being embellished with wall paintings. But actual evidence about this art is lost. How this art could have been, can be guessed from the paintings on stone surfaces found at Ajanta and Ellora which are said to have been done in around 400 A. D. These paintings at Ajanta and Ellora depict Buddhist tales from the Jatakas. Though the paintings are today 1500 years old, the paint has not only retained its color but also much of its luster. The technique of painting has been thus described by a student of Indian Art. The surface of the stone was first prepared by a coating of potters clay, mixed variously with cow dung, straw, and animal hair. Once this was leveled to a thickness of half an inch to two inches, it was coated with a smooth fine white lime plaster which became the actual painting surface. On the still-damp wall, the artist first laid out his composition with a red cinnabar line and then defined the subjects with an undercoat of grey or terre verte. This was followed by the addition of local colors, and once the whole wall was completely colored, a brown or black line restated the drawing to finish the composition. A last burnishing with a smooth stone gave it a rich lustrous surface. The colors which were natural and water soluble, consisted of purple, browns, yellow, blue, white, green, reds and black. Thus it is evident that the technique of painting had developed to an advanced level This monumental bull was carved in marble in the 3rd century B. C. It stood on a column built by Emperor Ashoka, which was inscribed with Buddhist edicts. of sophistication due which the paintings could survive for 1500 years. Though the colors used are supposed to have been derived from minerals and vegetables they had been treated to last long. The above description also illustrates how, complicated procedures of preparing the surface to be painted had evolved in India. This technique of painting had also spread to central Asia and South-east Asia. Some strains of Indian painting can even be identified in western church paintings and mosaics. Indian influence is clearly evident in the paintings at Bamiyan in Afghanistan and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Not only do these paintings depict the Buddha but also Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya. The mention of the word dance conjures up images of Nataraja - Lord of Dance - as the Indian God Shiva is portrayed. Apart from Shiva even Ganesha and Srikrishna are associated with dance and music. India has many classical dance styles. The oldest text dealing with aesthetics covering various art forms including dance is the Natyashastra which is authored by Bharatamuni. All the Indian classical dance styles viz. Bharata Natyam, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Odissi, Mohiniattam, Kathakali, Manipuri, etc. are derived from the Natyashastra. Some of these dance styles have evolved from folk dances and are intimately connected with the art of story telling. Most of these stories are drawn from our epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, tales from collections like the Panchatantra, Hitopadesha, Katha Sarit Sagara, etc. also from the subject matter of these dance styles. In fact the Kathak and Kathakali from U. P. and Kerala respectively, derive their names from the term Katha which in Sanskrit means a story. As the story is told in the form of dance, these dance styles can actually be called dance-dramas, the only difference is the absence of dialogues. The Charkul dance-drama of Central India revolves around a story generally from the Indian epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Similar traditions of dance-dramas are prevalent in other parts of India too. In Maharashtra, you have the Dashavatara, in Karnataka you have the Yakshagana The Kathak dance of North India and the kthaali dance of Kerala also originated as dance dramas and derive their names from the Sanskrit work Katha which means a story. The story has to be told solely through actions and hence an elaborate pattern of facial expressions (Mudra), movement of hands (Hasta) and the simulation of various moods like anger (Krodha), envy (Matsara), greed (Lobha), lust (Kama), ego (Mada), etc. have been evolved. The mastery of perfect expression of these feelings by subtle movement of the lips and eyes forms the root of all the classical Indian dance styles. In fact the combination of the three qualities viz. expression, rhyme and rhythm i. e. Bhava, Raga, and Tala go into the determination of the term Bha-Ra-Ta, which is used as the name of one dance style viz. Bharata Natyam. The integration of Indian classical dance with the physical exercises of Yoga and the breath control of Pranayam has perfected the dance styles. Yoga especially had given the dance styles an excellent footwork which is called Padanyasa and Padalalitya. Another feature of these dance styles is that they are integrated with theology and worship. Traditionally these dances were patronized by the temples. During festivals and other religious occasions, these dances were performed in the temple premises to propitiate the deity. Thus the dance came to combine both art and worship. Even today every recital of any Indian classical dance begins with an invocation to Nataraja or Nateshwara the god of dance. In Indian folklore and legend, the God of Dance is himself shown to be dancing in a form called the Tandava. This has also been depicted in the statues and carvings in temples like, Khajuraho and Konark in Northern India, and at Chidambaram, Madurai, Rameshwaram, etc. in the South. Indian dances have also evolved styles based on the Tandava like the Urdhra Tandava, Sandhya Tandava, etc. Indian classical dance found its way outside India, especially to the countries of Southeast Asia. The dance styles of Thailand, Indonesia, Burma, etc. have so heavily borrowed from the Indian classical dance traditions that to a casual observer there would seem to be hardly any difference between the two. While Western dance has not directly borrowed anything from Indian classical dance, it has borrowed from Indian folk dance through the medium of the Gypsies. The Gypsies as has been established today, migrated from India to the west many centuries ago. The Gypsies speak a language called Romany which has many common words with Indian languages. The religion of the Gypsies is a modified form of early Hinduism. The Gypsies seem to have been the Banjar nomads who are still found in India. Being a very carefree nomadic community the Gypsies earned their living by giving performance of folk dances, along with the pursuing of other nomadic activities. Gypsy dance has influenced western dance styles like the Waltz and the foxtrot. Even the American Break dance and other dances associated with jazz music have borrowed elements from the gypsy folk dance. The Gypsy folk dance, is itself a free flowing and care free dance, a modified version of which is found in the folk dances of many Adivasi and nomadic tribal communities in India. The origin of the Indian theatre or rather folk theatre and dramatics can be traced to religious ritualism of the Vedic Aryans. This folk theatre of the misty past was mixed with dance, ritualism, plus a depiction of events from daily life. It was the last element which made it the origin of the classical theatre of later times. Many historians, notably D. D. Kosambi, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Adya Rangacharaya, etc. have referred to the prevalence of ritualism amongst Aryan tribes in which some members of the tribe acted as if they were wild animals and some others were the hunters. Those who acted as animals like goats, buffaloes, reindeer, monkeys, etc. were chased by those playing the role of hunters and a mock hunt was enacted. In such a simple and crude manner did the theatre originate in India nearly 4000 years back in the tribal Aryans of Rig Vedic times. There also must have existed a theatrical tradition in the Indus valley cities, but of this we have no literary numismatic or any other material proof. The origin of drama and the theatre has been told to us in an aptly dramatic manner by Bharatamui, the author of Natyashastra an ancient Indian text on dance and drama. Bharatamuni is said to have lived around the 4th century but even he is not aware of the actual origin of the theatre in India. He has cleverly stated in a dramatic manner that it was the lord of creation Brahma who also created the original Natyashastra (Drama). According to Bharatamuni, since the lord Brahma created the entire universe we need not question his ability in creating dramas. But Bharatamuni goes on to tell us that the original Natyashastra of Brahma was too unwieldy and obscure to be of any practical use. Hence, Bharatamuni, himself took up the task of making Natyashastra simple, intelligible and interesting. Thus the Natyashastra of Bharatamuni was supported to be understood by lay people. So the Natyashastra of Bharatamunii is not the oldest text on dance and drama, as Bharata himself says that he has only simplified the original work of lord Brahma. The Natyashastra assumes the existence of many plays before it was composed, and says that most of the early plays did not follow the rules set down in the Natyashastra. But the Natyashastra itself seems to be the first attempt to develop the technique or rather art, of drama in a systematic manner. The Natya Shastra a tells us not only what is to be portrayed in a drama, but how the portrayal is to be done. Drama, as Bharatamuni says, is the imitation of men and their doings (loka-vritti). As men and their doings have to be respected on the stage, so drama in Sanskrit is also known by the term roopaka which means portrayal. According to the Natyashastra all the modes of expression employed by an individual viz. speech, gestures, movements and intonation must be used. The representation of these expressions can have different modes (vritti) according to the predominance and emphasis on one mode or another. Bharatamuni recognizes four main modes viz. Speech and Poetry (Bharati Vritti), Dance and Music (Kaishiki Vritti), Action (Arabhatti Vritti) and Emotions (Sattvatti Vritti). Bharatamuni also specifies where and how a play is to be performed. In ancient India plays were generally performed either in temple-yard or within palace precincts. During public performances, plays were generally performed in the open. For such public performances, Bharatamuni has advocated the construction of a mandapa. According to the Natyashastra in the construction of a mandapa, pillars must be set up in four corners. With the help of these pillars a platform is built of wooden planks. The area of the mandapa is divided into two parts. The front part, which is the back stage is called the r angashrishu. Behind the ranga-shirsha is what was called the nepathya-griha, where the characters dress up before entering the stage. Bharatamuni has also specified that every play should have a Sutradhara which literally means holder of a string. The Sutradhara was like the producer-director of today. Every play had to begin with an innovation of God. This invocation was called the poorvaranga. Even today, plays in Indian languages begin with a devotional song called Naandi. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata can be called the first recognized plays that originated in India. These epics also provided the inspiration to the earliest Indian dramatists and they do even today. One of the earliest Indian dramatists was Bhasa whose plays have been inspired by the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Bhasas date cannot be definitely ascertained, but that he lived before Kalidasa is proved by the latters reference to Bhasa as one of the early leading playwrights. As Kalidasa lived in the 4th century, Bhasa should have lived in the early centuries of our era. Bhasa was a natural dramatist who drew heavily from the epics, but Kalidasa can be called an original playwright. Kalidasa has written many plays, some of which are AbhijananShakuntalam, Kumarsambhavam, Meghadutam and Malavikagnimitram. Kalidasa was the court playwright at the Gupta court. He lived at Ujjaini, the capital of the Guptas and was for some days the Gupta ambassador at the court of the Vakatakas at Amaravati where he wrote the play Meghadutam. The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti. He is said to have written the following three plays viz. Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic, Ramayana. Bhavabhuti lived around the 7th century A. D. when Sanskrit drama was on its decline, mainly due to the lack of royal patronage. The last royal patron of Sanskrit drama seems to be king Harshavardhana of the 7th century. Harshavardhana is himself credited with having written three plays viz. Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda. But nevertheless despite lack of patronage two more leading playwrights came after Bhavabhuti, they were Shudraka whose main play was the Mricchakatikam, and the second dramatist was Rajashekhara whose play was titled Karpuramanjari. But the decline of Sanskrit theatre is evident from the fact that while Mricchakatikam was in Sanskrit, the Karpuramanjari was in Prakrit which was a colloquial form of Sanskrit. Rajashekhara has himself said that he chose to write in Prakrit as the language was soft while Sanskrit was harsh. Sanskrit plays continued to be written up to the 17th century in distant pockets of the country, mainly in the Vijayanagara empire of the South. But they had passed their prime, the later Sanskrit dramas are mostly imitations of Kalidasa or Bhavabhuti. As in the case of the other fine arts, the Indian theatre has left its mark on the countries of South-east Asia. In Thailand, especially it has been a tradition from the middle ages to stage plays based on plots drawn from Indian epics. This had been so even in Cambodia where, at the ancient capital Angkor Wat, stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata have been carved on the walls of temples and palaces. Similar, bas reliefs are found at Borobudur in Indonesia. Thus, the Indian theatre has been one of the vehicles of enriching the culture of our neighboring countries since ancient times. Epic Poetry Indian epic poetry is the epic poetry written on the Indian sub-continent. Written in Sanskrit, Tamil and Hindi, it includes some of the oldest epic poetry ever created and some works form the basis of Hindu scripture. The ancient Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, occasionally termed Mahakavya (Great Compositions), refer to epic poems that form a canon of Hindu scripture. Indeed, the epic form prevailed and verse was and remained until very recently the preferred form of Hindu literary works. Hero-worship was and is a central aspect of Indian culture, and thus readily lent itself to a literary tradition that abounded in epic poetry and literature. The Puranas, a massive collection of verse-form histories of Indias many Hindu gods and goddesses, followed in this tradition. The post-sangam period (2nd century-6th century) saw many great Tamil epics being written, including Cilappatikaram (or Silappadhikaram), Manimegalai, Jeevaga-chintamani, Valayapati and Kundalakesi. Later, during the Chola period, Kamban (12th century) wrote what is considered one of the greatest Tamil epics - the Kamba ramayanam of Kamban, based on the Ramayana. The post-sangam period (2nd century-6th century) saw many great Tamil epics being written, including Cilappatikaram (or Silappadhikaram), Manimegalai, Jeevaga-chintamani, Valayapati and Kundalakesi. Later, during the Chola period, Kamban (12th century) wrote what is considered one of the greatest Tamil epics - the Kamba ramayanam of Kamban, based on the Ramayana. The first epic to appear in Hindi was Tulsidas (1543-1623) Ramacharitamanasa, also based on the Ramayana. It is considered a great classic of Hindi epic poetry and literature, and shows the author Tulsidas in complete command over all the important styles of composition - narrative, epic, lyrical and dialectic. He has given a human character to Rama, the Hindu avatar of Vishnu, potraying him as an ideal son, husband, brother and king. Sports and Games Decline, Collapse and Legacy Around 1900 BCE, signs of a gradual decline begin to emerge. People started to leave the cities. Those who remained were poorly nourished. By around 1800 BC, most of the cities were abandoned. By around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. In 1953, Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the decline of the Indus Civilization was caused by the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia called the Aryans. As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo-Daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However, scholars soon started to reject Wheelers theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the citys abandonment and none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by Kenneth Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by erosion, and not violent aggression. Today, many scholars believe that the collapse of the Indus Civilization was caused by drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia. It has also been suggested that immigration by new peoples, deforestation, floods, or changes in the course of the river may have contributed to the collapse of the IVC. Previously, it was also believed that the decline of the Harappan civilization led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilization did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggest that material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of Pirak, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE. Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people eastward. After 1900 BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218 to 853. Excavations in the Gangetic plain show that urban settlement began around 1200 BCE, only a few centuries after the decline of Harappa and much earlier than previously expected. Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments. These link the so-called two major phases of urbanization in South Asia. A possible natural reason for the IVCs decline is connected with climate change that is also signaled for the neighboring areas of the Middle East: The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the systems sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event, as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. The actual reason for decline might be any combination of these factors. New geological research is now being conducted by a group led by Peter Clift, from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago, to test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline of the Harappan. A 2004 paper indicated that the isotopes of the Ghaggar-Hakra system do not come from the Himalayan glaciers, and were rain-fed instead, contradicting a Harappan time mighty Sarasvati river. A research team led by the geologist Liviu Giosan of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution also concluded that climate change in form of the easterward migration of the monsoons led to the decline of the IVC.77 The teams findings were published in PNAS in May 2012. According to their theory, the slow eastward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the civilization to develop. The monsoon-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons. As the monsoons kept shifting eastward, the water supply for the agricultural activities dried up. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out. In the aftermath of the Indus Civilizations collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Colored Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation a practice dominant in Hinduism today. Historical Context and Linguistic Affiliation The Indus Vally Civilization has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha known from Sumerian records. It has been compared in particular with the civilizations of Elam (also in the context of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis) and with Minoan Crete (because of isolated cultural parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship and depictions of bull-leaping). The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC is contemporary to the Early to Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East, in particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to Ur III Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Egypt. After the discovery of the IVC in the 1920s, it was immediately associated with the indigenous Dasyu inimical to the Rigvedic tribes in numerous hymns of the Rigveda. Mortimer Wheeler interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-Daro as the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously stated that Indra stands accused of the destruction of the IVC. The association of the IVC with the city-dwelling Dasyus remains alluring because the assumed timeframe of the first Indo-Aryan migration into India corresponds neatly with the period of decline of the IVC seen in the archaeological record. The discovery of the advanced, urban IVC however changed the 19th-century view of early Indo-Aryan migration as an invasion of an advanced culture at the expense of a primitive aboriginal population to a gradual acculturation of nomadic barbarians on an advanced urban civilization, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Rome, or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia. This move away from simplistic invasionist scenarios parallels similar developments in thinking about language transfer and population movement in general, such as in the case of the migration of the proto-Greek speakers into Greece, or the Indo-Europeanization of Western Europe. It was often suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to proto-Dravidians linguistically, the breakup of proto-Dravidian corresponding to the breakup of the Late Harappan culture. Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern and eastern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, in an interview with the Deccan Herald on 12 August 2012, Asko Parpola clarified his position by admitting that Sanskrit-speakers had contributed to the Indus Valley Civilization. Proto-Munda (or Para-Munda) and a lost phylum (perhaps related or ancestral to the Nihali language) have been proposed as other candidates. The civilization is sometimes referred to as the Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization or Indus-Sarasvati civilization by Hindutva groups. or the Indus-Sarasvati civilization. Explore the Topic Archaeological excavations in the 1920s unearthed the ruins of two vast cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, that attested to the ancient roots of Indian civilization. Both sites, now part of Pakistan, are among the chief urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization that developed along the floodplains of the Indus River and its tributaries and flourished between 3000 and 1900 BCE The river valleys fertility, augmented by the monsoon rains, made farming and herding a mainstay of the civilizations economy, which was also supplemented by internal and external trade. Among the key characteristics of the Indus civilization sites, which have now been found over a vast swath of Pakistan and northwestern India, is their uniformity. The cities were constructed with standardized size bricks and feature a rectilinear street plan, granaries, drainage and sewage systems, and multi-story homes. The civilization also developed a uniform system of weights and measures as well as a form of writing, which has yet to be decoded. In number and extent, the Indus civilization was the largest of the civilizations in the ancient world. Although the reasons for the Indus civilizations decline are not absolutely known, mounting geological evidence suggests that climate change may have been a factor. Video: The ruins of Harappa attest to the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley Harappa was an ancient urban settlement of the Bronze Age, located near the former course of the Ravi River, in northeast Pakistan, uncovered in the 1920s. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a similarly-planned city situated further south, near the banks of the Indus River, are considered part of the same vast civilization, the Indus Valley Civilization, which thrived from 2600 to 1900 BCE. Remnants of Harappas citadel wall, made of mud brick, are still visible, even though many of its bricks were plundered during the construction of a railway in the 19th century. Archaeological excavations indicate that the citys granaries were situated north of the citadel, while a cemetery was located to its south. Similar to the other cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, the streets were laid out in a grid-like pattern, running either north to south or east to west. The settlements flat-roof homes, of one or two stories, featured indoor plumbing that connected to a highly-developed drainage and waste removal system. Painted pottery, bronze and copper tools, terra cotta figures, and numerous inscribed stamped seals, decorated with animal motifs, are among the artifacts that have been unearthed at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Even with these finds, the identities of the cities rulers remain in doubt. Bicycling in the monsoon rains Indias climate is particularly affected by monsoons, strong winds that change direction with the seasons due to differences in land and ocean temperature and can trigger dramatic changes in weather. Derived from the Arabic for season (mausim), monsoons in India blow from the sea toward land in a southwest direction from June to September. From October through December, winds blow over land toward the sea from a northeast direction, sweeping from the Himalayas to the Indian Ocean. The rains during the summer or wet monsoon come down when air that has absorbed heat from the Indian landmass rises and is replaced by cooler air from over the Indian Ocean. Since temperatures during Indias summer can reach over 100 degrees Fahrenheit, the wet monsoon brings much-needed relief. The countrys agricultural industry and economy rely on the summer monsoon, which supplies as much as 80 of Indias rainfall. However, heavy monsoon seasons, which can bring many feet of rain in a matter of months, have led to landslides and have destroyed crops and villages. Conversely, monsoon failure can cause years of drought, and scientists theorize that a weakened monsoon may have contributed to the fall of the Indus Valley Civilization. Climate Change Video: Climate change may have been one of the reasons of the downfall of the Indus Valley Civilization In the 19th and 20th centuries, archaeologists discovered traces of Indias earliest civilization, one that developed in the fertile Indus River Valley between 3000 and 1900 BCE. Larger than either the Egyptian or Mesopotamian civilizations of the same period, the population of the Indus Valley (or Harappan) Civilization is estimated at anywhere between two and five million people. Among the civilizations 2000 major settlements were the planned cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, trading and craft production centers where craftspeople and villages wrought pottery and intricate beads made of gold, copper, and ivory. Archaeological evidence shows that after 700 years of stability, the civilization declined. Most of the Indus settlements had been abandoned or had shrunk in size by about 1800 BCE. Many factors contributed to the end of the Indus civilization, but climate change is emerging as a primary reason for its gradual demise. Geological evidence shows that the regions climate grew colder and drier, in part perhaps because of a weakened monsoon. By 1800 BCE, the Ghaggar-Hakra River, a river in the region that paralleled the Indus system and that some scholars suggest is the Saraswati, the lost sacred river of Rig Veda . was severely diminished. As a result, cities were abandoned and though some of the population remained, many migrated to more fertile lands in the east around the Ganges and Jumna River. Discussion Questions What have archaeologists found at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro that indicate that the cities were part of an advanced civilization While the monsoon winds are an essential part of Indian trade and agricultural history, what problems can they cause In ancient times, climate change may have caused Indus Valley cities to have been abandoned. What changes to civilizations and cities might modern climate change bring The Story of India is made possible by contributions from viewers such as yourself and also by Pataks Indian foods. Started by Indian entrepreneur L. G. Pathak, Pataks distributes Indian food products in the USA and around the world. Find out more about how to enjoy the tastes of India by visiting us online at pataksusa8a. Early Civilization in the Indus Valley Aryans probably used the Khyber Pass to cross the mountains during their Indian invasion. Located in present day Pakistan, the pass is about 16 yards wide at its narrowest point. The phrase early civilizations usually conjures up images of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and their pyramids, mummies, and golden tombs. But in the 1920s, a huge discovery in South Asia proved that Egypt and Mesopotamia were not the only early civilizations. In the vast Indus River plains (located in what is today Pakistan and western India), under layers of land and mounds of dirt, archaeologists discovered the remains of a 4,600 year-old city. A thriving, urban civilization had existed at the same time as Egyptian and Mesopotamian states mdash in an area twice each of their sizes. The people of this Indus Valley civilization did not build massive monuments like their contemporaries, nor did they bury riches among their dead in golden tombs. There were no mummies, no emperors, and no violent wars or bloody battles in their territory. Remarkably, the lack of all these is what makes the Indus Valley civilization so exciting and unique. While others civilizations were devoting huge amounts of time and resources to the rich, the supernatural, and the dead, Indus Valley inhabitants were taking a practical approach to supporting the common, secular, living people. Sure, they believed in an afterlife and employed a system of social divisions. But they also believed resources were more valuable in circulation among the living than on display or buried underground. Copyright J. M. Kenoyerharappa The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is the earliest known public water tank of the ancient world. Most scholars believe that this tank would have been used in conjunction with religious ceremonies. Amazingly, the Indus Valley civilization appears to have been a peaceful one. Very few weapons have been found and no evidence of an army has been discovered. Excavated human bones reveal no signs of violence, and building remains show no indication of battle. All evidence points to a preference for peace and success in achieving it. So how did such a practical and peaceful civilization become so successful The Twin Cities Photo courtesy of Carolyn Brown Heinz Seals such as these were used by merchants in the Harappan civilization. Many experts believe that they signified names. The ruins of two ancient cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (both in modern-day Pakistan), and the remnants of many other settlements, have revealed great clues to this mystery. Harappa was, in fact, such a rich discovery that the Indus Valley Civilization is also called the Harappan civilization. The first artifact uncovered in Harappa was a unique stone seal carved with a unicorn and an inscription. Similar seals with different animal symbols and writings have since been found throughout the region. Although the writing has not yet been deciphered, the evidence suggests they belonged to the same language system. Apparently, Mesopotamias cuneiform system had some competition in the race for the worlds first script. The discovery of the seals prompted archaeologists to dig further. Amazing urban architecture was soon uncovered across the valley and into the western plains. The findings clearly show that Harappan societies were well organized and very sanitary. This copy of the Rig Veda was written after the Vedic Age. The Aryans had no form of writing at the time they invaded India. Instead, these religious scripts would have been memorized and passed down orally by Brahman priests. For protection from seasonal floods and polluted waters, the settlements were built on giant platforms and elevated grounds. Upon these foundations, networks of streets were laid out in neat patterns of straight lines and right angles. The buildings along the roads were all constructed of bricks that were uniform in size. The brick houses of all city dwellers were equipped with bathing areas supplied with water from neighborhood wells. Sophisticated drainage systems throughout the city carried dirty water and sewage outside of living spaces. Even the smallest houses on the edges of the towns were connected to the systems mdash cleanliness was obviously of utmost importance. The Fall of Harappan Culture No doubt, these cities were engineering masterpieces of their time. The remains of their walls yield clues about the culture that thrived in the Indus Valley. Clay figurines of goddesses, for example, are proof that religion was important. Toys and games show that even in 3000 B. C.E. kids mdash and maybe even adults mdash liked to play. Pottery, textiles, and beads are evidence of skilled craftsmanship and thriving trade. The swastika was a sacred symbol for the Aryans signifying prosperity. The word comes from the Sanskrit for good fortune. Hitler borrowed the symbol, changed the angle and direction of the arms, and used it to represent the Nazis. It was this intensive devotion to craftsmanship and trade that allowed the Harappan culture to spread widely and prosper greatly. Each time goods were traded or neighbors entered the gates of the cities to barter, Indus culture was spread. Eventually, though, around 1900 B. C.E, this prosperity came to an end. The integrated cultural network collapsed, and the civilization became fragmented into smaller regional cultures. Trade, writing, and seals all but disappeared from the area. Many believe that the decline of the Harappan civilization was a result of Aryan invasions from the north. This theory seems logical because the Aryans came to power in the Ganges Valley shortly after the Indus demise of the Indus Valley Civilization. Because there is little evidence of any type of invasion though, numerous historians claim that it was an environmental disaster that led to the civilizations demise. They argue that changing river patterns disrupted the farming and trading systems and eventually led to irreparable flooding. Although the intricate details of the early Indus Valley culture might never be fully known, many pieces of the ancient puzzle have been discovered. The remains of the Indus Valley cities continue to be unearthed and interpreted today. With each new artifact, the history of early Indian civilization is strengthened and the legacy of this ingenious and diverse metropolis is made richer. The Ancient Indus Valley Everything you could want to know about the largest and least known area of the ancient world. Compiled by their Assistant Field Director, the Harappa Archaeological Research Project (HARP) is full of graphics and guided tours around the ruins of Indus Valley civilization. Slide shows, biographies of the first explorers, and interviews with top scholars round out this easily navigable website. Some features require Quicktime and RealAudio plugins. A Unicorn Seal Tommy Hilfigers tags are red, white, and blue. Nike shoes are emblazoned with the trademark swoosh. See here how the manufacturers of the early Indus Valley made their products known. The Ancient Indus Valley Civilization Architecture, engineering, the arts, and sciences: these were only a few of the areas in which the Harappan civilization was accomplished. This intense paper from the Ancient Civilizations website gives us an in-depth look at what life entailed for ancient Harappans, from sewers to music. Women and the Vedic Chant Lopamudra was a great sage who inspired fear among peers and awe among elders. She also happened to be a woman. Read about the state of women in the Vedic Age before they fell from power as men took control. Learn from this Suite 101 article how these ancient women influence Indian women today. The Indus Valley Civilization The Aryans It could be possible that the Aryans never actually invaded India. Instead, Europeans may have made up the whole theory to divide the Indian people. Is the Aryan Invasion Theory the only explanation for the historical evidence Take a look at this table provided by Greenhead College, which gives the basics and the historical evidence for each theory that explains the relationship between the Dravidians and the Aryans. The Aryans and the Vedic Age When the Aryans arrived in India, they brought with them the horse, Sanskrit (the basis of the Hindi language) and the basis of Hinduism. They also brought war as well as the caste system, and erased all traces of the writing system of the Harappan civilization. The dedicated students at Thinkquest argue the pros and cons of the Aryan invasion into India. The Vedic Age They came through the Khyber Pass with their cattle and culture, transplanting a civilization in the process. Read at this India Visit website about the Aryans and the Vedic Age. Learn about the grand epics they wrote and the contributions that they made to the India of today.
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